Research-driven. Family-approved.

Parents who are experiencing picky eating are far from alone! The rate of “picky eating” depends on the age group studied and how “picky eating” was measured by the researchers. Lots of studies found that the prevalence in early childhood is between 22-26%. Some studies found that up to 50% of young children were considered “picky eaters” by their parents. 

Benjasuwantep, B., Chaithirayanon, S., & Eiamudomkan, M. (2013). Feeding problems in healthy young children: prevalence, related factors and feeding practices. Pediatric reports, 5(2), 38-42.

Carruth, B. R., Ziegler, P. J., Gordon, A., & Barr, S. I. (2004). Prevalence of picky eaters among infants and toddlers and their caregivers’ decisions about offering a new food. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 104, 57-64.

Cole, N. C., An, R., Lee, S. Y., & Donovan, S. M. (2017). Correlates of picky eating and food neophobia in young children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition reviews, 75(7), 516-532.

Machado, B. C., Dias, P., Lima, V. S., Campos, J., & Gonçalves, S. (2016). Prevalence and correlates of picky eating in preschool-aged children: A population-based study. Eating behaviors, 22, 16-21.

Although it can feel worrying if your older baby or toddler starts to get a bit fussy with their food, this is actually to be expected! Research shows that, although this varies from child to child, at about one year of age, many children enter a ‘picky’ stage. This is because of several things that happen all at once - a bit of a ‘perfect storm’. In fact, it is pretty usual for toddlers to skip meals, avoid veggies and choose easy foods like carbohydrates. The EasyBites app will help you spot which behaviours are typical, which may be concerning, and what to do about childhood pickiness.

It’s a common myth that the way children eat comes down to parenting. Actually, a lot of different factors influence children’s food preferences and eating behavior. These include genetics, medical factors, the sensory system, development of chewing and swallowing skills, anxiety and temperament.

Birch, L., & Doub, A. E. (2014). Learning to eat: Birth to age 2 y. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 99(3), 723S-728S.

Cardona Cano, S., Hoek, H. W., van Hoeken, D., de Barse, L. M., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Verhulst, F. C., & Tiemeier, H. (2016). Behavioral outcomes of picky eating in childhood: A prospective study in the general population. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 57(11), 1239–1246.

Cardona Cano, S., Tiemeier, H., Van Hoeken, D., Tharner, A., Jaddoe, V. W., Hofman, A., ... & Hoek, H. W. (2015). Trajectories of picky eating during childhood: a general population study. International journal of eating disorders, 48(6), 570-579.

Farrow, C. V., & Coulthard, H. (2012). Relationships between sensory sensitivity, anxiety and selective eating in children. Appetite, 58(3), 842-846.

Fraser, K., Markides, B. R., Barrett, N., & Laws, R. (2021). Fussy eating in toddlers: A content analysis of parents’ online support seeking. Maternal & Child Nutrition, n/a(n/a), e13171.

Harris, G., Blissett, J., & Johnson, R. (2000). Food refusal associated with illness. Child Psychology and Psychiatry Review, 5(4), 148-156.

Haycraft, E., Farrow, C., Meyer, C., Powell, F., & Blissett, J. (2011). Relationships between temperament and eating behaviours in young children. Appetite, 56(3), 689-692.

Lafraire, J., Rioux, C., Giboreau, A., & Picard, D. (2016). Food rejections in children: Cognitive and social/environmental factors involved in food neophobia and picky/fussy eating behavior. Appetite, 96, 347-357.

Smith, A. M., Roux, S., Naidoo, N. R., & Venter, D. J. (2005). Food choices of tactile defensive children. Nutrition, 21(1), 14-19.

Wardle, J., & Cooke, L. (2008). Genetic and environmental determinants of children's food preferences. British Journal of Nutrition, 99(S1), S15-S21.

When faced with a child who is eating a limited variety or quantity of food, it is very normal for parents to respond by trying to get them to eat. But actually, research shows that pressuring children to eat doesn’t help. When children feel under pressure, eating can become a negative experience for them - making them like the food less and be less likely to eat it next time. 

Daniels, L. A. (2019). Feeding practices and parenting: A pathway to child health and family happiness. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 74(2), 29-42.

Galloway, A. T., Fiorito, L. M., Francis, L. A., & Birch, L. L. (2006). ‘Finish your soup’: counterproductive effects of pressuring children to eat on intake and affect. Appetite, 46(3), 318-323.

Jansen, P. W., de Barse, L. M., Jaddoe, V. W., Verhulst, F. C., Franco, O. H., & Tiemeier, H. (2017). Bi-directional associations between child fussy eating and parents' pressure to eat: Who influences whom?. Physiology & behavior, 176, 101-106Loth, K. A. (2016). Associations between food restriction and pressure-to-eat parenting practices and dietary intake in children: a selective review of the recent literature. Current Nutrition Reports, 5(1), 61-67.

If parents are concerned that their child is eating too much food (or too much of a specific food), the natural response is to tell them that they have had enough and stop them from eating more. Research shows that when foods are restricted, children actually want them more, and eat more of them when they are available. 

Daniels, L. A. (2019). Feeding practices and parenting: A pathway to child health and family happiness. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 74(2), 29-42.

Fisher, J. O., & Birch, L. L. (1999). Restricting access to palatable foods affects children's behavioral response, food selection, and intake. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 69(6), 1264-1272.

Jansen, E., Mulkens, S., & Jansen, A. (2007). Do not eat the red food!: prohibition of snacks leads to their relatively higher consumption in children. Appetite, 49(3), 572-577.

Loth, K. A. (2016). Associations between food restriction and pressure-to-eat parenting practices and dietary intake in children: a selective review of the recent literature. Current Nutrition Reports, 5(1), 61-67.

Rollins, B. Y., Savage, J. S., Fisher, J. O., & Birch, L. L. (2016). Alternatives to restrictive feeding practices to promote self‐regulation in childhood: a developmental perspective. Pediatric obesity, 11(5), 326-332.

Children’s eating is unpredictable at the best of times - so it’s very easy to worry about eating behaviors that are, in fact, quite normal. The amount of food that children eat varies a lot from meal to meal - but balances out over time. This is called self-regulation. 

Many children go through a developmentally normal “picky” phase in toddlerhood called “neophobia” which means “fear of new foods”. Knowing how to respond to this normal stage of development can help children to transition back to eating more variety more smoothly. 

Children are genetically predisposed to prefer sweet and salty flavors over sour and bitter flavors. This is normal - so don’t panic if your child has a “sweet-tooth!”

Birch, L. L. (1999). Development of food preferences. Annual review of nutrition, 19(1), 41-62

Birch, L. L., & Deysher, M. (1985). Conditioned and unconditioned caloric compensation: evidence for self-regulation of food intake in young children. Learning and motivation, 16(3), 341-355.

Birch, L. L., Johnson, S. L., Andresen, G., Peters, J. C., & Schulte, M. C. (1991). The variability of young children's energy intake. New England Journal of Medicine, 324(4), 232-235. 

Frankel, L. A., Powell, E., & Jansen, E. (2018). The relationship between structure-related food parenting practices and children's heightened levels of self-regulation in eating. Childhood Obesity, 14(2), 81-88.

Pliner, P., & Salvy, S. (2006). Food neophobia in humans. Frontiers in nutritional science, 3, 75.

Rozin, P. (2006). The integration of biological, social, cultural and psychological influences on food choice. Frontiers in nutritional science, 3, 19.

Structured family meals support children’s eating.

A structure based approach where parents provide developmentally appropriate foods at regular meal and snack times supports children’s eating.

Family meals help children to become familiar with a variety of foods and see others enjoy them - this natural exposure and modeling helps children to eat a wider variety in the long term.

Positive family meals are an opportunity for supporting children’s social and emotional development too.

Black, M. M., & Aboud, F. E. (2011). Responsive feeding is embedded in a theoretical framework of responsive parenting. The Journal of nutrition, 141(3), 490-494.

Christian, M. S., Evans, C. E., Hancock, N., Nykjaer, C., & Cade, J. E. (2013). Family meals can help children reach their 5 A Day: a cross-sectional survey of children's dietary intake from London primary schools. J Epidemiol Community Health, 67(4), 332-338.

Daniels, L. A. (2019). Feeding practices and parenting: A pathway to child health and family happiness. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 74(2), 29-42.

Fiese, B. H., & Schwartz, M. (2008). Reclaiming the family table: Mealtimes and child health and wellbeing. Social Policy Report, 22(4), 1-20.

Lafraire, J., Rioux, C., Giboreau, A., & Picard, D. (2016). Food rejections in children: Cognitive and social/environmental factors involved in food neophobia and picky/fussy eating behavior. Appetite, 96, 347-357.

Satter, E. M. (1986). The feeding relationship. J Am Diet Assoc, 86(3), 352-356.

Satter, E. (2012). Child of mine: Feeding with love and good sense. Bull Publishing Company.

Savage, J. S., Fisher, J. O., & Birch, L. L. (2007). Parental influence on eating behavior: conception to adolescence. The Journal of law, medicine & ethics, 35(1), 22-34.

“Controlling” or non-responsive feeding strategies like pressure to eat, or restriction, are associated with poorer diet, weight and eating patterns. Following responsive feeding practices, and the Satter Division of Responsibility model (parents decide the what, when and where of eating, and children decide how much and whether), are associated with children being at a lower risk nutritionally. 

Daniels, L. A. (2019). Feeding practices and parenting: A pathway to child health and family happiness. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 74(2), 29-42.

Ruder, E. H., & Lohse, B. A. (2017). Adherence to the Satter Division of Responsibility in Feeding can predict child nutritional risk. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 49(7), S1.

The Responsive Approach to feeding is recommended widely by key health organizations across the globe, such as:

The American Heart Association

American Academy of Pediatrics

World Health Organization

American Dietetic Organization

Infant Toddler Forum (UK)

Finnane, J. M., Jansen, E., Mallan, K. M., & Daniels, L. A. (2017). Mealtime structure and responsive feeding practices are associated with less food fussiness and more food enjoyment in children. Journal of nutrition education and behavior, 49(1), 11-18.

O'Connor, T., Watson, K., Hughes, S., Beltran, A., Hingle, M., Baranowski, J., ... & Baranowski, T. (2010). Health professionals' and dietetics practitioners' perceived effectiveness of fruit and vegetable parenting practices across six countries. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 110(7), 1065-1071.

Daniels, L. A. (2019). Feeding practices and parenting: A pathway to child health and family happiness. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 74(2), 29-42.

Aboud, F. E., Shafique, S., & Akhter, S. (2009). A responsive feeding intervention increases children's self-feeding and maternal responsiveness but not weight gain. The Journal of nutrition, 139(9), 1738-1743.